System and method for cryogenic cooling

ABSTRACT

In accordance with an embodiment of the invention, there is provided a system for cooling a load. The system comprises a closed loop primary refrigeration system comprising: a primary compressor taking in a primary refrigerant at a low pressure and discharging the primary refrigerant at a high pressure; an insulated enclosure comprising an inlet receiving the primary refrigerant at the high pressure from the primary compressor and an outlet returning the primary refrigerant at the low pressure to the primary compressor; at least one heat exchanger within the insulated enclosure receiving the primary refrigerant at the high pressure and cooling the primary refrigerant using a secondary refrigerant from a secondary refrigeration system, the secondary refrigerant being in heat exchange relationship with the primary refrigerant in the at least one heat exchanger; an expansion unit within the insulated enclosure receiving the primary refrigerant at the high pressure from the at least one heat exchanger and discharging the primary refrigerant at the low pressure; and a supply line delivering the primary refrigerant at the low pressure to the load and a return line returning the primary refrigerant from the load to the primary refrigeration system. The system further comprises the secondary refrigeration system, wherein the secondary refrigeration system comprises at least one secondary cryogenic refrigerator. A system control unit controls operation of at least one of the primary refrigeration system and the secondary refrigeration system to provide a variable refrigeration capacity to the load based on at least one of: a pressure of the primary refrigerant delivered to the load, and at least one temperature of the load.

RELATED APPLICATIONS

This application claims the benefit of U.S. Provisional Application No.61/363,514, filed on Jul. 12, 2010; and claims the benefit of U.S.Provisional Application No. 61/333,801, filed on May 12, 2010. Theentire teachings of the above applications are incorporated herein byreference.

BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION

With continued miniaturization of semiconductor devices, there has beenan increased demand for ultra-shallow junctions. For example, tremendouseffort has been devoted to creating better activated, shallower and moreabrupt source-drain extension junctions to meet the needs of modernsemiconductor devices. It has been discovered that very low wafertemperature during ion implantation is advantageous for minimizingdamage of a silicon wafer. In addition, there is an ongoing need forvery low temperature cooling in a wide variety of other semiconductorprocesses and other fields.

SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION

In accordance with an embodiment of the invention, there is provided asystem for cooling a load. The system comprises a closed loop primaryrefrigeration system comprising: a primary compressor taking in aprimary refrigerant at a low pressure and discharging the primaryrefrigerant at a high pressure; an insulated enclosure comprising aninlet receiving the primary refrigerant at the high pressure from theprimary compressor and an outlet returning the primary refrigerant atthe low pressure to the primary compressor; at least one heat exchangerwithin the insulated enclosure receiving the primary refrigerant at thehigh pressure and cooling the primary refrigerant using a secondaryrefrigerant from a secondary refrigeration system, the secondaryrefrigeration system being in heat exchange relationship with theprimary refrigerant in the at least one heat exchanger; an expansionunit within the insulated enclosure receiving the primary refrigerant atthe high pressure from the at least one heat exchanger and dischargingthe primary refrigerant at the low pressure; and a supply linedelivering the primary refrigerant at the low pressure to the load and areturn line returning the primary refrigerant from the load to theprimary refrigeration system. The system further comprises the secondaryrefrigeration system, which comprises at least one secondary cryogenicrefrigerator. A system control unit controls operation of at least oneof the primary refrigeration system and the secondary refrigerationsystem to provide a variable refrigeration capacity to the load based onat least one of: a pressure of the primary refrigerant delivered to theload, and at least one temperature of the load.

In further, related embodiments, the at least one temperature of theload may comprise a temperature of from about −80 C to about −250 C. Thesecondary refrigeration system may comprise a first channel deliveringcooling to at least one heat transfer surface of the load and a secondchannel delivering the secondary refrigerant to the at least one heatexchanger. The at least one heat transfer surface may transfer heat tocool at least a portion of the load to a temperature in the range offrom about −40 C to about −100 C. The at least one heat transfer surfacemay comprise at least a portion of a chamber to receive a semiconductorsubstrate to be processed by a system of the load. The secondaryrefrigeration system may comprise a mixed gas refrigeration system. Themixed gas refrigeration system may comprise more than one heat exchangerand at least one phase separator. The secondary refrigeration system maycomprise a reverse Brayton refrigeration system. The load may compriseat least one of a pre-cool cryogenic interface module, a pre-coolchamber, a cold pad cryogenic interface module, a platen, anelectrostatic chuck and two separate loads.

In other related embodiments, the system may further comprise anelectrical interface control unit in electronic communication with theload. The electrical interface control unit may receive an electronicsignal indicating at least one temperature of the load; and/or anelectronic signal indicating at least one set-point temperature of theload. The electrical interface control unit may output an electricalsignal to control operation of the secondary refrigeration system tocontrol at least one temperature of the load. The at least onetemperature of the load controlled by the electrical interface controlunit may comprise a temperature of at least one heat transfer surface ofthe load.

In further related embodiments, the system control unit may comprise acontrol unit to control the providing of the variable refrigerationcapacity to the load based on at least the pressure of the primaryrefrigerant delivered to the load; a control unit to control a dischargerate of the primary compressor; a control unit to control at least oneof a high pressure, a low pressure and a pressure differential of theprimary compressor; a control unit to control a heat source to supplyheat to be delivered to the primary refrigerant; a control unit tocontrol operation of an adjustable throttle; a control unit to controlflow of the primary refrigerant to bypass at least a portion of the atleast one heat exchanger; a control unit to control flow of the primaryrefrigerant to bypass at least a portion of the primary refrigerationsystem; a control unit to control a rate of flow of the primaryrefrigerant; a control unit to control a rate of flow of the secondaryrefrigerant; a control unit to control a set point temperature of thesecondary refrigeration system; a control unit to control a heat sourceto supply heat to be delivered to the secondary refrigerant; a controlunit to control a speed of a secondary compressor of the secondaryrefrigeration system; a control unit to control flow of the secondaryrefrigerant to bypass at least a portion of the secondary refrigerationsystem; a control unit to control flow of at least a portion of theprimary refrigerant to warm at least a portion of the load; and/or acontrol unit to control flow of at least a portion of the secondaryrefrigerant to warm at least a portion of the load.

In further, related embodiments, the insulated enclosure may beintegrated into at least a portion of the secondary refrigerationsystem. The at least one heat exchanger may comprise a condenser. Thesystem control unit may comprise a control unit to adjust the speed ofthe at least one secondary cryogenic refrigerator. The system controlunit may further comprises a control unit to adjust the speed of atleast one secondary compressor of the at least one secondary cryogenicrefrigerator. The system control unit may comprise a control unit toturn off at least one of the at least one secondary cryogenicrefrigerators. The system control unit may control operation of at leastone of the primary refrigeration system and the secondary refrigerationsystem to vary a proportion of the primary refrigerant that is flowed tothe load in a liquid phase versus a gaseous phase. The system maycomprise more than one secondary cryogenic refrigerator, and the systemcontrol unit may comprise a control unit to control operation of themore than one secondary cryogenic refrigerators to run at differentspeeds from each other; or to run at the same speed as each other. Thesystem control unit may control operation of at least one of the primaryrefrigeration system and the secondary refrigeration system to maintaina substantially constant temperature of the at least one temperature ofthe load. The system control unit may comprise a control unit to routeat least a portion of the primary refrigerant to a warmer surface in thesystem to reduce refrigeration applied to the load. The system controlunit may comprise a control unit to permit at least one of variablespeed operation of the primary compressor, and pulsed operation of theprimary compressor.

In further, related embodiments, the system control unit may controloperation of the secondary refrigeration system to avoid undercooling ofthe load by: determining a calculated boiling point of the primaryrefrigerant returned from the load based on a measured pressure of theprimary refrigerant returned from the load; comparing a measuredtemperature of the primary refrigerant returned from the load with thecalculated boiling point; and, if the measured temperature is more thana predetermined temperature difference above the calculated boilingpoint, controlling the secondary refrigeration system to increaseavailable refrigeration to the load. In another embodiment, the systemcontrol unit may control operation of the secondary refrigeration systemto avoid undercooling of the load by: monitoring a temperature of theprimary refrigerant returning from the load at a first temperaturesensor downstream of the load; controlling a small heater, downstream ofthe first temperature sensor, to turn on if the temperature at the firsttemperature sensor has reached a predetermined assumed saturationtemperature point; monitoring a temperature of the primary refrigerantat a second temperature sensor, downstream of the small heater; and ifthe turning on of the small heater raises the temperature of the primaryrefrigerant, controlling the secondary refrigeration system to increaseavailable refrigeration to the load. In another embodiment, the systemcontrol unit may control operation of the secondary refrigeration systemto avoid overcooling of the load by: monitoring a temperature of theprimary refrigerant returning from the load at a first temperaturesensor downstream of the load; controlling a small heater, downstream ofthe first temperature sensor, to turn on if the temperature at the firsttemperature sensor has reached a predetermined assumed saturationtemperature point; monitoring a temperature of the primary refrigerantat a second temperature sensor, downstream of the small heater; and ifthe turning on of the small heater raises the temperature of the primaryrefrigerant, determining the magnitude of the heat provided by the smallheater and, based on the magnitude, determining whether to control thesecondary refrigeration system to decrease available refrigeration tothe load. The system control unit may comprise a control unit to adjusta variable heater on the at least one secondary cryogenic refrigerator.The system control unit may comprise a control unit to control asetpoint temperature of the at least one secondary cryogenicrefrigerator. The system control unit may control more than onesecondary cryogenic refrigerator to have different setpoint temperaturesfrom each other.

In further, related embodiments, the primary refrigerant may comprise atleast one of nitrogen, argon, xenon, krypton, helium or a mixed gasrefrigerant. The primary refrigerant may comprise at least onerefrigerant component having a boiling temperature that is higher than aboiling temperature of a refrigerant used in the secondary refrigerationsystem; such as, the primary refrigerant may comprise at least one ofargon, nitrogen, xenon and krypton, and the secondary refrigerant maycomprise at least one of helium and neon. The primary refrigerant maycomprise a refrigerant having a boiling temperature that is lower than aboiling temperature of at least one refrigerant used in the secondaryrefrigeration system. The primary refrigerant may comprise at least oneof argon, nitrogen, xenon, krypton and helium, and the secondaryrefrigerant may comprise a mixed gas refrigerant. The system may furthercomprise a recuperative heat exchanger within the insulated enclosureand exchanging heat between the primary refrigerant at the high pressureflowing from the inlet of the insulated enclosure and the primaryrefrigerant returned from the load, the recuperative heat exchangerdischarging the primary refrigerant at the high pressure to a condenser.The system may further comprise a bypass valve permitting bypassing ofthe recuperative heat exchanger such that the primary refrigerant at thehigh pressure flowing from the inlet of the insulated enclosure does notexchange heat with the primary refrigerant returned from the load. Thesystem control unit may control operation of the secondary refrigerationsystem to avoid undercooling of the load by: monitoring a temperature inat least one of an intermediate point in the recuperative heat exchangerand an end point of the recuperative heat exchanger; and if themonitored temperature falls below a predetermined temperature,controlling the secondary refrigeration system to decrease availablerefrigeration to the load.

In further, related embodiments, the load may comprise an electrostaticchuck, which may be a portion of an ion implantation system tomanufacture a semiconductor device. The system may further comprise apre-cooling chamber to receive the semiconductor device prior to itshandling by the electrostatic chuck. The load may comprise at least oneof: at least a portion of a system for cooling a semiconductor wafer, atleast a portion of an ion implantation system, and at least a portion ofa physical vapor deposition system. The at least one secondary cryogenicrefrigerator may comprise a Gifford-McMahon cycle refrigerator, whichmay comprise a helium refrigerator. The at least one secondary cryogenicrefrigerator may comprise a pulse tube refrigerator. The at least onesecondary cryogenic refrigerator may comprise at least one of a reverseBrayton cycle refrigerator, a Stirling cycle refrigerator and aJoule-Thomson cycle refrigerator; and may comprise a refrigerator usinga single refrigerant or a refrigerator using a mixed gas refrigerant.The at least one secondary cryogenic refrigerator may comprise more thanone secondary cryogenic refrigerator connected to cool the primaryrefrigerant in a parallel or series flow of the primary refrigerant inheat exchange relationship with the more than one secondary cryogenicrefrigerators.

In further, related embodiments, the primary compressor of the primaryrefrigeration system may comprise a variable speed compressor. Thesystem may further comprise a cryopumping surface to create a vacuumwithin the insulated enclosure. The cryopumping surface may comprise asecond stage of cooling of the at least one secondary cryogenicrefrigerator. The system may further comprise a bypass valve permittingthe primary refrigerant to bypass the supply line that delivers theprimary refrigerant to the load and the return line that returns theprimary refrigerant from the load. The expansion unit may comprise atleast one of a capillary tube, a valve with a variable flow area, aspring biased valve, a piston expander and a turbine expander. Thesystem may further comprise a pressure regulator regulating flow of theprimary refrigerant between a source of the primary refrigerant and theprimary refrigerant at the low pressure taken in by the primarycompressor; and a pressure control unit to control the pressureregulator to regulate the flow of the primary refrigerant into thesystem. The system may further comprise an isolation valve connected toa pressure gauge on the insulated enclosure, the isolation valvepreventing flow of the primary refrigerant into the inlet of theinsulated enclosure if the pressure gauge on the insulated enclosuredetects a pressure above a predetermined maximum safe pressure. Thesystem may further comprise a thermal sensor connected to monitor thetemperature of the primary refrigerant returning from the insulatedenclosure to the primary compressor; and a safety control unit connectedto discontinue operation of the secondary refrigeration system if thetemperature of the primary refrigerant returning from the insulatedenclosure is less than a predetermined touch hazard minimum temperature.The system may further comprise a purifier removing impurities from gasdirected from a supply source of the primary refrigerant, prior to theprimary refrigerant entering the system; and/or an oil separatorremoving oil from the primary refrigerant within the primary compressor.At least a portion of each of the supply line and the return line mayextend within a vacuum insulated transfer line. The at least one heatexchanger may convert at least a substantial portion of the primaryrefrigerant to a liquid phase; or the at least one heat exchanger maysubstantially not convert the primary refrigerant to a liquid phase. Theexpansion unit may convert at least a substantial portion of the primaryrefrigerant to a liquid phase.

In further, related embodiments, the supply line may deliver therefrigerant at the low pressure to the load through a transfer line outof the insulated enclosure, and the return line may return therefrigerant from the load to the insulated enclosure through thetransfer line. The load may be within the insulated enclosure. The loadmay comprise at least one of: a semiconductor substrate, a fluid streamfor cryogenic separation, a gas to be liquefied, a biological sample, achemical process, material property analysis equipment, a water vaportrap, an article in a manufacturing process, an imaging device, asubatomic particle detector, a photonic detector, chemical analysisequipment, a superconducting cable, and a superconducting device.

In another embodiment according to the invention, there is provided asystem for providing a cooling refrigerant to a load. The systemcomprises a closed loop primary refrigeration system comprising acompressor taking in the refrigerant at a low pressure and dischargingthe refrigerant at a high pressure; an expansion valve receiving therefrigerant at the high pressure from the compressor and discharging therefrigerant at the low pressure to an insulated enclosure, the insulatedenclosure comprising an inlet receiving the refrigerant from theexpansion valve and an outlet returning the refrigerant at the lowpressure to the compressor; at least one heat exchanger within theinsulated enclosure receiving the refrigerant at the low pressure andcooling the refrigerant using a secondary refrigeration system in heatexchange relationship with the refrigerant; and a supply line deliveringthe refrigerant at the low pressure to the load and a return linereturning the refrigerant from the load to the primary refrigerationsystem. The system further comprises the secondary refrigeration system,which comprises at least one secondary cryogenic refrigerator. A systemcontrol unit controls operation of at least one of the primaryrefrigeration system and the secondary refrigeration system to provide avariable refrigeration capacity to the load based on at least one of: apressure of the primary refrigerant delivered to the load, and at leastone temperature of the load.

In another embodiment according to the invention, there is provided amethod for cooling a load. The method comprises compressing a primaryrefrigerant in a primary compressor of a closed loop primaryrefrigeration system, the primary compressor taking in a primaryrefrigerant at a low pressure and discharging the primary refrigerant ata high pressure; transferring the primary refrigerant at the highpressure from the primary compressor to an inlet of an insulatedenclosure, and returning the primary refrigerant at the low pressurefrom the insulated enclosure to the primary compressor; transferring theprimary refrigerant at the high pressure to at least one heat exchangerwithin the insulated enclosure, and cooling the primary refrigerant inthe at least one heat exchanger using heat exchange with a secondaryrefrigerant from a secondary refrigeration system, the secondaryrefrigeration system comprising at least one secondary cryogenicrefrigerator; expanding the primary refrigerant using an expansion unitwithin the insulated enclosure, the expansion unit receiving the primaryrefrigerant at the high pressure from the at least one heat exchangerand discharging the primary refrigerant at the low pressure; deliveringthe primary refrigerant at the low pressure to the load and returningthe primary refrigerant from the load to the primary refrigerationsystem; and controlling operation of at least one of the primaryrefrigeration system and the secondary refrigeration system to provide avariable refrigeration capacity to the load based on at least one of: apressure of the primary refrigerant delivered to the load, and at leastone temperature of the load.

In further, related embodiments, the method may further comprisedelivering cooling from the secondary refrigeration system to at leastone heat transfer surface of the load through a first channel of thesecondary refrigeration system, and delivering the secondary refrigerantto the at least one heat exchanger through a second channel of thesecondary refrigeration system. The method may further comprisecontrolling the providing of the variable refrigeration capacity to theload based on at least the pressure of the primary refrigerant deliveredto the load. The method may further comprise: controlling at least oneof a high pressure, a low pressure and a pressure differential of theprimary compressor; controlling a heat source to supply heat to bedelivered to the primary refrigerant; controlling operation of anadjustable throttle; controlling flow of the primary refrigerant tobypass at least a portion of the at least one heat exchanger;controlling flow of the primary refrigerant to bypass at least a portionof the primary refrigeration system; controlling a rate of flow of theprimary refrigerant; controlling a rate of flow of the secondaryrefrigerant; controlling a set point temperature of the secondaryrefrigeration system; controlling a heat source to supply heat to bedelivered to the secondary refrigerant; controlling a speed of asecondary compressor of the secondary refrigeration system; controllingflow of the secondary refrigerant to bypass at least a portion of thesecondary refrigeration system; controlling flow of at least a portionof the primary refrigerant to warm at least a portion of the load;and/or controlling flow of at least a portion of the secondaryrefrigerant to warm at least a portion of the load.

In further, related embodiments, the method may comprise delivering therefrigerant at the low pressure to the load through a transfer line outof the insulated enclosure, and returning the refrigerant from the loadto the insulated enclosure through the transfer line. The load may bewithin the insulated enclosure. The load may comprise at least one of: asemiconductor substrate, a fluid stream for cryogenic separation, a gasto be liquefied, a biological sample, a chemical process, materialproperty analysis equipment, a water vapor trap, an article in amanufacturing process, an imaging device, a subatomic particle detector,a photonic detector, chemical analysis equipment, a superconductingcable, and a superconducting device. The method may further comprisemoving an object or fluid to be cooled from a heat transfer surface ofthe load to another portion of the load.

BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS

The foregoing will be apparent from the following more particulardescription of example embodiments of the invention, as illustrated inthe accompanying drawings in which like reference characters refer tothe same parts throughout the different views. The drawings are notnecessarily to scale, emphasis instead being placed upon illustratingembodiments of the present invention.

FIG. 1 is a schematic diagram of a cooling system in accordance with anembodiment of the invention.

FIG. 2 is a diagram of a thermal cycle of nitrogen gas in accordancewith an embodiment of the invention.

FIG. 3 is a schematic diagram of a cooling system using a second stagecryogenic refrigerator as a cryopump, in accordance with an embodimentof the invention.

FIG. 4 is a schematic diagram of a high throughput cooling system inaccordance with an embodiment of the invention.

FIG. 5 is a schematic diagram of a high throughput cooling system withan insulated enclosure integrated into a mixed gas refrigeration system,in accordance with an embodiment of the invention.

DETAILED DESCRIPTION OF THE INVENTION

A description of example embodiments of the invention follows.

In accordance with an embodiment of the invention, there is provided aclosed cycle cryogenic cooling source to provide a solution forlow-temperature ion implantation for use in single-wafer high-throughpution implanters. In addition, an embodiment according to the inventionmay be used to provide cooling in a wide variety of other possibleapplications, such as to cool fluid streams for cryogenic separations,to liquefy gasses, to provide cooling for biological freezers, controlreaction rates of chemical processes, to provide cooling for materialproperty analysis equipment, to trap water vapor to produce low vaporpressures in vacuum processes, to cool articles in manufacturingprocesses such as semiconductor wafer processing and inspection, to coolimaging devices and other instrumentation, subatomic particle andphotonic detectors, to cool chemical analysis equipment and to coolsuperconducting cables and devices. It will be appreciated that thesystem may be used in other cooling applications.

FIG. 1 is a schematic diagram of a cooling system 100 in accordance withan embodiment of the invention. In the embodiment of FIG. 1, the system100 uses cryogenic refrigerators 101/102/103 to cool a recirculatingrefrigerant, such as a nitrogen stream 104. With reference to thethermal diagram of FIG. 2 in which parallel numbering is used to thecomponents of FIG. 1, the nitrogen is pre-cooled 205 a/b in first andsecond portions 105 a/b of a recuperative heat exchanger 105 (which mayalternatively be implemented as two separate heat exchangers), condensed206 using cryogenic refrigerators 101/102/103, expanded 207 usingexpansion unit 107 (at least a portion of the refrigerant may be changedfrom a gas state to a liquid state by the cryogenic refrigerators101/102/103, and/or by the expansion unit 107), and provided 208 to theload 108 where the nitrogen boils, extracting heat to cool the load 108,and returns to the system in gas form. The returned nitrogen is warmedby returning 205 a/b through the recuperative heat exchanger 105 a/b,while pre-cooling 205 a/b the incoming stream by heat exchange betweenthe returning stream and the incoming stream within the recuperativeheat exchanger 105 a/b. The nitrogen then returns to be recompressed 209in the compressor package 109. The system 100 may be used for providingcooling to a wafer chuck used in ion implantation during thesemiconductor fabrication process, as well as for other applicationsnoted above.

In the embodiment of FIG. 1, the system includes a cryogenicrefrigeration system 101/102/103, a nitrogen compressor 109, aninsulated enclosure 110 (where heat transfer from the refrigerators101/102/103 to the recirculating nitrogen stream 104 occurs), valving,flow controls, pressure controls, safety controls, system controls, andpurification (all discussed further below). Instead of a recirculatingnitrogen stream 104, the system may use a stream of argon, xenon,krypton, another pure refrigerant, a mixed refrigerant, or anyrefrigerant (such as nitrogen and/or argon) comprising a refrigerantcomponent that boils at a temperature warmer than the boiling point ofthe refrigerant used in refrigerators 101/102/103. It should beappreciated that as used herein a “refrigerant” may be a mixture of agaseous and a liquid phase, and the ratio of gas to liquid may changeover the course of a refrigeration cycle. The cryogenic refrigerationsystem 101/102/103 uses helium as the refrigerant through one or morerefrigerators 101/102/103 running a Gifford-McMahon (GM) refrigerationcycle. Alternately, a reverse Brayton cycle, a Stirling cycle or a JouleThomson expansion cycle with either single or mixed refrigerant may beused to provide refrigeration 101/102/103. Instead of helium, thecryogenic refrigeration system 101/102/103 may use a refrigerantcomprising another cold boiling refrigerant component, such as neon. Oneembodiment uses multiple refrigerators 101/102/103, which may be inseries or parallel, although a single refrigerator is also possible.

In the embodiment of FIG. 1, the nitrogen compressor 109 uses ahermetically sealed rotary vane pump modified for compressing dry gases;however, a scroll or any other type of pump could also be used. The pumpmay operate at a variable speed. Alternatively, a constant speed pumpmay be used. In order to manage the heat of compression, oil may beinjected into the nitrogen stream before or during compression bycompressor 109. This oil is then removed from the nitrogen stream thoughan oil separator 135 consisting of a dense pack of fiberglass and a roomtemperature adsorber with activated charcoal.

In the embodiment of FIG. 1, the insulated enclosure 110 is achievedthrough creating a low pressure or vacuum envelope around the componentsthat will be below room temperature. The insulating vacuum may beprovided by a turbo molecular pump 111, backed by a diaphragm roughingpump 112, but can also be created through cryopumping. For example, asecond stage cryogenic refrigerator 313 (see FIG. 3), or anothercryogenic refrigerator, could be used as a cryopump to create the vacuumwithin the enclosure 110. Insulating vacuum is also used along thethermally isolated transfer line 114 carrying the liquid nitrogen to theload 108 to be cooled, either by using a rigid transfer line open to thevacuum space of the insulated enclosure 110, vacuum jacketed bayonettefittings, or by a separately sealed vacuum space along the transfer line114, either actively pumped or initially brought to a low pressure andsealed. The insulation can also be achieved through other insulationsystems such as foam around the cold components.

In the embodiment of FIG. 1, the heat transfer out of the nitrogen intothe cryogenic refrigerators 101/102/103 is achieved through directthermal conduction from the refrigerator 101/102/103 to a mass of copperaround which is wound a tubular heat exchanger. The copper mass may bepart of the refrigerator or may be joined to the refrigerator in amanner that enables thermal conduction. The copper mass may have ahelical scalloped groove to support the tube, which is brazed in placeto maximize thermal transfer. Alternately, a D-shaped tube, with a flaton one side, can be used. The tube has a smooth inner diameter, butinternal fins, grooves, or a rough finish can be used to increase theinternal surface area and improve thermal transfer.

In the embodiment of FIG. 1, the valving comprises two isolation valves115/116, one 115 on the line supplying liquid nitrogen to the load andone 116 on the line returning the nitrogen boil-off, and a bypass valve117 which allows the liquid nitrogen to circulate without being sent tothe load 108. The valving 115/116/117 allows a mode of operation wherethe system can be pre-cooled to operating temperatures beforerefrigeration is applied to the load 108 and the system can bemaintained at low temperatures during periods of time whererefrigeration is not required at the load 108. The valves can have athermally isolated actuation device, whether manual, pneumatic, orelectrical, which minimizes the heat leak from the valves to theexternal environment. The thermal isolation is achieved through thinwall tubes, with our without cut-outs which can further reduce the crosssectional area between the valve body and the actuation device. Thermalisolation can also be achieved through the use of materials with lowthermal conductivities.

In the embodiment of FIG. 1, flow control may be achieved through theuse of a capillary tube 107 explicitly sized for the temperatures,pressures, percent of liquid saturation, and desired flow of the system.The capillary 107 is placed between the refrigerators 101/102/103 andthe line 114 supplying liquid nitrogen to the load, but the location canbe varied in the system. Alternate methods of flow control include awarm throttle valve or other expansion valve which switches in anorifice between the compressor 109 and the warm heat exchanger 105, avalve with a variable flow area, a spring biased valve, or by varyingthe speed of the compressor 109.

In the embodiment of FIG. 1, a semiconductor device that is beingmanufactured may be pre-cooled to reduce the required coolingrefrigerant at the electrostatic chuck. For example, a flow line (notshown) may divert nitrogen from a location in nitrogen loop 104 to apre-cooling chamber (not shown).

In the embodiment of FIG. 1, pressure control is provided by a pressureregulator 118 between a source of nitrogen and the return side of thenitrogen compressor, a high side pressure control valve 119, a bypassregulator 120, and the speed of the compressor 109. The pressureregulator 118 allows gas to be drawn from the source of nitrogen tocompensate for the volume difference between gaseous and liquid nitrogenand maintain pressure as the nitrogen is being condensed and thereforecontrols the minimum pressure for the return side of the nitrogencompressor. The nitrogen source could be either from a high pressurecylinder, the facility nitrogen source in the semiconductor fabricationplant or a local nitrogen generator. The pressure regulator 118 is setto a constant value, but could also be actively controlled by a pressurecontrol unit 136 to modify the gas flow into the system which wouldallow the temperature at which refrigeration is applied to the load 108to be varied dynamically. The high side pressure control valve 119limits the supply side pressure when the nitrogen in the system isboiling off, either under conditions of increasing load, or when thesystem is being shut down. The bypass regulator 120 is placed betweenthe high pressure side and low pressure side of the nitrogen compressor109 and controls the power required by the compressor 109 and, inconjunction with the high side pressure control valve 119, the maximumpressure of the return side of the compressor 109. The compressor speedand the pressure regulator setting define the minimum pressure of thesupply side of the compressor 109. The speed of the compressor 109 maybe varied. Alternatively, the speed of the compressor 109 may beconstant.

In the embodiment of FIG. 1, safety controls are provided through reliefvalves 119/121/122/123/124 on the nitrogen lines and insulated enclosure110 and a relief valve on the compressor 109, isolation valves 125/126on the nitrogen stream, and a thermal sensor 137. The relief valves119/121/122/124 on the nitrogen lines are installed on any volume thatcould be potentially isolated through operation of the valves ordisconnection of the lines carrying nitrogen from the compressor 109 tothe insulated enclosure 110. The relief valve 123 on the vacuum space110 is sized to prevent over pressurization of the enclosure 110 in theevent of a nitrogen line break and subsequent boil-off within theenclosure 110. The isolation valve 125 on the nitrogen stream iscontrolled by a pressure gauge 127 on the insulating enclosure 110. Ifthe gauge 127 senses a high pressure, such as above 1 micron, a relay onthe gauge 127 trips, cutting power to the isolation valve 125 which is anormally closed configuration and which therefore closes. This preventsnitrogen from the source of supply from continuing to enter theenclosure 110 in case of a nitrogen line break or vacuum leak whichwould lead to evaporation of liquid nitrogen in the nitrogen lines. Athermal sensor 137 monitors the temperature of the nitrogen leaving theinsulated enclosure 110 to return to compressor 109 and will stopoperation of the refrigerators 101/102/103 (or reduce refrigerationprovided by them) if the temperature is low enough to create a touchhazard.

In the embodiment of FIG. 1, the system control unit 139 includes one ormore control units configured to adjust the amount of refrigerationpower available to avoid either overcooling or undercooling the system,allowing the system to provide the proper amount of refrigeration to theload 108 without creating a hazardous situation. Further operation ofthe control units that are implemented by system control unit 139 isdiscussed below. It will be appreciated that system control unit 139 iselectrically connected to various sensors and devices discussed herein,including sensors 130, 131, 133, 137, small heater 132, compressors 109and 128, and other sensors and devices as necessary to control operationof the system as described herein. The system control unit 139 includesappropriate electronic hardware, including specially programmedmicroprocessors or other specially programmed electronics to implementthe control techniques described herein. Further, it will be appreciatedthat where a “control unit” is discussed herein it may be implemented asa subunit of the system control unit 139, such as by a subroutine orsubcomponent of a microprocessor or other electronic hardware of thesystem control unit 139. In order to prevent overcooling orundercooling, the system control unit 139 adjusts the speed of thecryogenic refrigerators 101/102/103 and/or helium compressor 128 and/orturns off one or more of the refrigerator units 101/102/103. Thisresults in a change in the percent of the flow to the load 108 that isin liquid phase, as opposed to gaseous phase. In normal operation, i.e.,not overcooled or undercooled, the refrigerators 101/102/103 are allowedto run at different speeds, although they could also be constrained toall run at the same speed to balance the refrigeration load across allrefrigerators. It should also be appreciated that one or more of thecryogenic refrigerators 101/102/103 may be of different sizes ordifferent refrigeration types, or all of the cryogenic refrigerators maybe the same size and refrigeration type. In addition, the control unitsmay provide the cryogenic refrigerators 101/102/103 with controlparameters (such as a maximum or minimum refrigerator speed) withinwhich the cryogenic refrigerators must run, while allowing the cryogenicrefrigerators to perform local control (using one or more on-board localprocessors) within the maximum and minimum parameters. Further, thecontrol units may control the setpoint temperature of the refrigerators101/102/103 directly, rather than controlling speed of the refrigeratorsdirectly. The refrigerators 101/102/103 may be controlled to havedifferent setpoint temperatures.

In the embodiment of FIG. 1, other options exist to adjust the availablerefrigeration. For instance, a variable heater 140 could be used toreduce the amount of refrigeration applied by cryogenic refrigerators101/102/103 running at either a constant or variable speed. Anothermethod would be to use a valve to route the nitrogen flow around thereturn side heat exchanger 105 b, preventing or allowing precooling ofthe incoming nitrogen before it reaches the cryogenic refrigerators101/102/103. A portion of the flow could also be routed to a warmersurface in the system to reduce the refrigeration applied to the load108. The available refrigeration could also be adjusted by changing theflow in the nitrogen stream with either a variable speed compressor 109or by pulsing the flow by turning a constant speed compressor on andoff.

In the embodiment of FIG. 1, for the system controls to be effective,the system may be able to detect both under-refrigerated andover-refrigerated conditions.

Detection of under refrigeration may be done by measuring the pressureon the return line of the nitrogen circuit using a pressure transducer130, which determines the boiling point of the liquid nitrogen, which isthen calculated. Data from a temperature sensor 131 on the return lineis then compared with the calculated value. If the measured temperatureis more than a preset temperature difference above the calculatedtemperature, it is an indication that the system is not returning liquidor near liquid nitrogen from the load 108 and can make use of morerefrigeration. The refrigerators 101/102/103 are then commanded toincrease their available refrigeration through means such as increasingtheir speed. The detection of an under-refrigerated condition can bealso achieved through other means, such as a complete model of thethermodynamic system and comparing system parameters such as inlet andoutlet temperatures, inlet and outlet pressures, and flows. Anothermethod is to monitor the return temperature using temperature sensor 131and, when it reaches an assumed saturation temperature point, turn on asmall heater 132 downstream of temperature sensor 131. A secondtemperature sensor 133 downstream of the small heater 132 is thenmonitored to see if the addition of the small amount of heat raised thetemperature of the nitrogen. If it did, the nitrogen stream is exceedinga set level of superheat and more refrigeration is needed.

In the embodiment of FIG. 1, detection of over-refrigeration isimportant for safety and potentially energy efficiency reasons.Over-refrigeration may be monitored by looking at the temperature at anintermediate point through the recuperative heat exchanger 105 a/b, oralternately at either end. If this temperature falls below a pre-setlevel, the system adjusts to reduce available refrigeration. A secondarycontrol thermal sensor 137 monitors the temperature of the nitrogenleaving the heat exchangers 105 a/b and returning to the compressor 109.If this value falls below a temperature considered to be a touch hazard,all refrigerators 101/102/103 are disabled by a safety control unit 138and the system operation is locked out. Another method is to monitor thereturn temperature using a temperature sensor 131 and, when it reachesan assumed saturation temperature point, turn on a small heater 132downstream of the point 116 where the temperature sensor 131. A secondtemperature sensor 133 downstream of the small heater 132 is thenmonitored to see if the addition of the small amount of heat raised thetemperature of the nitrogen. The magnitude of the amount of heat neededto raise the temperature is an indicator of whether there isover-refrigeration. In addition, temperatures at specific locations suchas at the load may be used for feedback control of increasing ordecreasing refrigeration to the load. Decreasing refrigeration to theload may be accomplished by reducing the refrigeration produced byrefrigerators 101/102/103 and/or by diverting flow from the load throughbypass valve 117.

In addition, in an embodiment according to the invention in which thereis two-phase flow of the refrigerant (i.e., the refrigerant includes aliquid and a gaseous phase), the system control unit 139 may regulatethe temperature of the load using information regarding the pressure ofthe refrigerant entering the load (i.e., refrigerant inlet pressure tothe load), and without the need to receive temperature feedback. This ispossible because of the pressure/temperature relationship of a two-phasemixture. In one embodiment, both the inlet pressure and a downstreamtemperature of the load may be used to permit the system control unit139 to regulate the temperature of the load; in another embodiment, onlythe inlet pressure may be used. Where control techniques are describedherein as being based on one or more temperatures, similar techniquesmay therefore also be used based on pressure and temperature or only onpressure.

In the embodiment of FIG. 1, purity of the recirculating nitrogen may beensured through several methods in the system. First, the gas from thesource of nitrogen supply outside of the system is passed through apurifier 134 using either heated or un-heated getter material to removeimpurities. Within the nitrogen compressor 109, the oil introduced intothe nitrogen stream is removed though an oil separator 135 consisting ofa dense pack of fiberglass and a room temperature adsorber withactivated charcoal, which also removes water and other gaseouscontaminants. Finally, the nitrogen stream is passed through a coldadsorber 129 within the insulated enclosure 110. Care is taken to reducethe introduction of contaminants in the use of the system as well.Isolation valve 126 may allow for room temperature or heated nitrogen tobe introduced into the system to warm the load, and pressure regulator118 may be used to ensure that positive pressure is always maintainedwithin the nitrogen stream.

FIG. 4 is a schematic diagram of a high throughput cooling system 400 inaccordance with an embodiment of the invention. In the embodiment ofFIG. 4, the system 400 uses a dual channel mixed gas refrigerant system441 to permit pre-cooling of a substrate to be cooled, in addition tocooling a recirculating refrigerant such as a nitrogen stream 404. Thecooling system 400 includes the mixed gas refrigerant system 441, anitrogen recirculation compressor 409, an insulated enclosure 410, andan electrical interface control box 442. The electrical interfacecontrol box 442 may be separate from, or integral with, the electronicsfor controlling the mixed gas refrigeration system 441. In the insulatedenclosure 410, heat transfer from the mixed gas refrigeration system 441to the recirculating nitrogen stream 404 occurs. The insulated enclosure410 in the embodiment of FIG. 4 contains foam insulation, althoughvacuum insulation as in the embodiment of FIG. 1 may be used instead.The insulated enclosure 410 may include cold components discussed below,which are insulated, while the nitrogen compressor 409 is locatedoutside of the insulated enclosure 410 and is at a warmer temperature,such as room temperature.

In the embodiment of FIG. 4, a first channel 443 of the mixed gasrefrigeration system 441 circulates mixed gas refrigerant to pre-coolingequipment, for example to pre-cool a semiconductor device that is beingmanufactured in order to reduce the required cooling refrigerant at anelectrostatic chuck. In FIG. 4, the first channel 443 includes a firstchannel mixed gas refrigerant supply line 444 to carry mixed gasrefrigerant to the pre-cooling equipment, and a first channel mixed gasrefrigerant return line 445 to return the mixed gas refrigerant from thepre-cooling equipment. The pre-cooling equipment may, for example,include a pre-cool cryogenic interface module 446, which cools heattransfer surfaces in one or more pre-cool chambers 447, 448; or themixed gas refrigerant may be circulated directly to the heat transfersurfaces in pre-cool chambers 447, 448. In addition, the mixed gasrefrigerant may be circulated to any heat transfer surface in the load,which may or may not be pre-cooling equipment and regardless of whetherpre-cooling equipment is used. Further, an embodiment according to theinvention may be used to cool two different loads at two differenttemperatures, including where one of the loads is not a pre-cool chamberfor the other load. In addition to loads such as semiconductorsubstrates discussed herein, any other load may be cooled by anembodiment according to the invention. For example, the load may includea fluid stream for cryogenic separation, a gas to be liquefied, abiological freezer or other biological sample, a chemical process,material property analysis equipment, a water vapor trap for vacuumprocesses, an article in a manufacturing process, an imaging device orother instrumentation, a subatomic particle or photonic detector,chemical analysis equipment or a superconducting cable or device. Otherloads may be cooled.

In accordance with one embodiment of the invention, the pre-coolchambers 447, 448 may, for example, be used to cool semiconductorsubstrates to a temperature in the range of from about −40 C to about−100 C, after which the substrates may be transferred to anelectrostatic chuck 449 upon which ion implantation or other processesare performed on the substrates. In accordance with an embodiment of theinvention, nitrogen directed out of the insulated enclosures (such as110 and 410) may, for example, be used to achieve a target temperatureof from about −80 C to about −250 C, such as from about −150 C to about−190 C, which may be the temperature at a cold pad cryogenic interfacemodule 465, a platen 466, an electrostatic chuck 449, or anotherlocation at the load. By virtue of the pre-cooling of semiconductorsubstrates in the pre-cool chambers 447, 448, an embodiment according tothe invention permits a higher throughput rate for the semiconductormanufacturing equipment, because the semiconductor substrates requireless time to be cooled to a desired low temperature at the electrostaticchuck 449 when the substrates have already been pre-cooled in thepre-cool chambers 447, 448.

In the embodiment of FIG. 4, a second channel 450 of the mixed gasrefrigeration system 441 circulates mixed gas refrigerant through heatexchangers contained within the insulated enclosure 410 in order toremove heat from a separate nitrogen gas loop 404 passing though aseparate channel of the same heat exchangers. In the embodiment of FIG.4, the nitrogen loop 404 may circulate essentially all of the nitrogenin a gaseous state throughout the closed loop 404, although a mixture ofliquid and gas may be circulated as described above for the embodimentof FIG. 1. In the nitrogen loop 404, the nitrogen is compressed bynitrogen compressor 409 and delivered via nitrogen supply line 451 toone side of a first heat exchanger 452, from which the nitrogen flows toone side of a second heat exchanger 453. In the first and second heatexchangers 452, 453, the nitrogen is cooled by nitrogen returning fromthe load. After the second heat exchanger 453, the nitrogen flowsthrough an optional heater 454 to one side of a third heat exchanger455, from which the nitrogen flows to one side of a fourth heatexchanger 456. In the third and fourth heat exchangers 455, 456, thenitrogen is cooled by mixed gas refrigerant (from the mixed gasrefrigeration system 441), flowing through the other sides of the thirdand fourth heat exchangers 455, 456. The nitrogen exits the fourth heatexchanger 456, flows through an adsorber 457 to remove impurities, andis expanded through an expansion unit, such as a capillary tube 458 orthrottle valve. The expansion unit is used to regulate the flow of thenitrogen as well as to provide additional cooling through a gasexpansion effect. Following expansion, the nitrogen exits the insulatedenclosure 410 through nitrogen line 459 to cool the load, and isreturned from the load through return line 460 to the insulatedenclosure 410. The returning nitrogen is provided to the other side ofthe second heat exchanger 453, and from there to the other side of thefirst heat exchanger 452, in order to be warmed and to cool the incomingnitrogen stream in the first and second heat exchangers 452 and 453.From the first heat exchanger 452, the nitrogen returns to thecompressor 409 via return line 461 to be compressed.

In this way, in the embodiment of FIG. 4, the first two heat exchangers452, 453 are used for recuperative heat exchange between the coldnitrogen gas returning 460 from the load and the supply gas 451 enteringthe insulated enclosure 410 from the nitrogen compressor 409. The thirdand fourth heat exchangers 455, 456 are used to transfer heat betweenthe mixed gas refrigerant (from the second channel 450 of the mixed gasrefrigerant system 441), and the nitrogen gas that has exited the firsttwo heat exchangers. The mixed gas refrigerant is supplied to the fourthheat exchanger 456 by mixed gas supply line 462 of the second channel450 of the mixed gas refrigeration system 441, is flowed through oneside of each of the fourth and third heat exchangers 456, 455, and fromthere returns by mixed gas return line 463 of the second channel 450 tothe mixed gas refrigeration system 441. The heater 454 may be used toprevent the mixed gas refrigerant from freezing in the heat exchangers455, 456.

In the embodiment of FIG. 4, the pressure difference between the supplyand return sides of the nitrogen compressor 409 (for instance, thepressure difference between the nitrogen supply line 451 and thenitrogen return line 461), may be controlled in order to achieve adesired nitrogen flow rate and expansion level as the nitrogen is passedthrough the capillary tube 458. In addition, an electronic inverter 464may be used to reduce the speed of compressor 409, in order to reducethe nitrogen flow rate exiting the compressor 409.

In the embodiment of FIG. 4, valves 415/416/417 may be used in a similarfashion to that described above for valves 115/116/117 of FIG. 1. Inparticular, the valving may comprise two valves 415/416, one 415 on theline supplying nitrogen to the load and one 416 on the line returningthe nitrogen from the load, and a bypass valve 417 which allows thenitrogen to circulate without being sent to the load. The valving415/416/417 allows a mode of operation where the system can bepre-cooled to operating temperatures before refrigeration is applied tothe load and the system can be maintained at low temperatures duringperiods of time where refrigeration is not required at the load. Thevalves 415/416/417 need not be vacuum valves where the insulatedenclosure 410 is not vacuum insulated, although they may be so whenvacuum insulation is used.

The embodiment 400 of FIG. 4 may be used to interface with equipmentoperated by an end-user for semiconductor fabrication or otherapplications. For example, the customer equipment may include one or allof a cold pad cryogenic interface module 465, a platen 466, anelectrostatic chuck 449, a pre-cool cryogenic interface module 446, andone or more pre-cool chambers 447, 448. The nitrogen lines 459 and 460exiting and returning to the insulated enclosure 410 may be connectedwith such customer equipment, as may be the mixed gas refrigerant supplyand return lines 444 and 445. The customer equipment may, for example,include the equipment shown in portion 467 of FIG. 4.

In the embodiment of FIG. 4, an electrical interface control box 442provides an electrical interface between the customer equipment 467, themixed gas refrigeration system 441 and the systems within the insulatedenclosure 410. The electrical interface control box 442 may for example,have as inputs or outputs one or more of the following, or otherelectrical signals regarding the state of such components: an inputelectronic signal indicating a temperature at a remote location, such asthe pre-cool chambers 447, 448; an input electronic signal indicating atemperature control set-point for the remote location such aselectrostatic chuck 449 or platen 466; an input electronic signalindicating whether coolant is to flow from the first channel 443 of themixed gas refrigeration system 441; an input electronic signalindicating whether coolant is to flow from the second channel 450 of themixed gas refrigeration system 441; an output electronic signalindicating cold is ready at the first channel 443 of the mixed gasrefrigeration system 441; an output electronic signal indicating cold isready at the second channel 450 of the mixed gas refrigeration system441; output electrical signals indicating the temperatures of the supplyand return nitrogen in lines 459 and 460; output electrical signalsindicating the temperatures of the mixed gas refrigerant supply andreturn lines 462 and 463; an output electrical signal indicating afeedback for the mixed gas refrigeration system 441; an outputelectrical signal indicating a fault in one or more of the nitrogen loop404 or either channel of the mixed gas refrigeration system 441; anoutput electrical signal indicating cold source power on. The electricalinterface control box 442 may be used to provide electrical control ofone or more systems or subsystems, for example to control operation ofthe first channel 443 of the mixed gas refrigeration system 441 suchthat a specified temperature is maintained at a remote point, such as atone or more of the pre-cooling chambers 447 and 448. For instance, theelectrical interface control box 442 may pulse on and off the operationof the first channel 443 of the mixed gas refrigeration system 441 inorder to control the temperature at such a remote location. In additionto the electrical interface control box 442, the embodiment of FIG. 4includes a further system control unit 439, which may be a separate unitconnected with the electrical interface control box 442 or may beintegrated with it. The system control unit 439 includes one or morecontrol units 494 configured to adjust the amount of refrigeration poweravailable to avoid either overcooling or undercooling the system,allowing the system to provide the proper amount of refrigeration to theloads (including, for example, both the pre-cooling equipment446/447/448 and cold pad cryogenic interface module 465) withoutcreating a hazardous situation. Further operation of the control unitsthat are implemented by system control unit 439 is discussed below. Itwill be appreciated that system control unit 439 is electricallyconnected to various sensors and devices discussed herein, includingheater 454, compressor 409, valves 415/416/417, and other sensors anddevices as necessary to control operation of the system as describedherein. The system control unit 439 includes appropriate electronichardware, including specially programmed microprocessors or otherspecially programmed electronics to implement the control techniquesdescribed herein. Further, it will be appreciated that where a “controlunit” is discussed herein it may be implemented as a subunit of thesystem control unit 439, such as by a subroutine or subcomponent of amicroprocessor or other electronic hardware of the system control unit439.

In the embodiment of FIG. 4, the system control unit 439 controls thedelivery temperatures to the load, including, for example, any or all ofthe pre-cooling equipment 446/447/448, cold pad cryogenic interfacemodule 465, platen 466 and electrostatic chuck 449. In order to controloperation of the nitrogen loop 404 to control such deliverytemperatures, several different possible techniques may be used, eitheralone or in combination. In each case, the system control unit 439 mayreceive a reading of one or more temperatures at remote locations in theload, by receiving an electronic signal from one or more temperaturesensors (not shown), and in response may control operation of one ormore devices via electronic signals to those devices, from one or morecontrol units used for such purposes. The system control unit 439 maytherefore implement a feedback loop to control delivery temperatures tothe load. The control may be continuous and closed loop, oralternatively, the control may be open loop and need not be continuous.In addition, in an embodiment according to the invention in which thereis two-phase flow of the refrigerant (i.e., the refrigerant includes aliquid and a gaseous phase), the system control unit 439 may regulatethe temperature of the load using information regarding the pressure ofthe refrigerant entering the load (i.e., refrigerant inlet pressure tothe load), and without the need to receive temperature feedback. This ispossible because of the pressure/temperature relationship of a two-phasemixture. In one embodiment, both the inlet pressure and a downstreamtemperature of the load may be used to permit the system control unit139 to regulate the temperature of the load; in another embodiment, onlythe inlet pressure may be used. Where control techniques are describedherein as being based on one or more temperatures, similar techniquesmay therefore also be used based on pressure and temperature or only onpressure.

In one example of control by the system control unit 439, in theembodiment of FIG. 4, the discharge rate from the nitrogen compressor409 may be controlled by the system control unit 439 in response to oneor more temperatures at one or more remote locations in the load. Thespeed of the nitrogen compressor 409 may be varied, or the nitrogencompressor 409 may be turned on and off, by the system control unit 439.The system control unit 439 may control the high pressure (supplypressure) of the nitrogen compressor 409, for example the pressure atnitrogen supply line 451. Further, the system control unit 439 maycontrol the low pressure (return pressure) of the nitrogen compressor409, for example the pressure at nitrogen return line 461. Further, thesystem control unit 439 may control the pressure differential betweenthe high pressure and the low pressure of the nitrogen compressor 409;or may control two or more of the pressure differential, the highpressure and the low pressure of the nitrogen compressor 409 The systemcontrol unit 439 may control the heat supplied to the flowing nitrogenloop 404, for example using an electronic signal to heater 454, anotherheater, or another heat source. The system control unit 439 may use anelectronic signal to control an adjustable throttle, which would be usedin place of capillary tube 458. The system control unit 439 may use anelectronic signal to switch flow (for example by providing electronicsignals to one or more valves) through a hot gas bypass (not shown) inthe nitrogen loop 404, for example, to direct flow of the nitrogen tobypass some portions (or all of) of one or more of the heat exchangers452, 453, 455, 456, resulting in short-circuiting of the cooling loopfor the nitrogen. The system control unit 439 may use an electronicsignal to switch flow (for example by providing electronic signals toone or more valves) through a bypass (not shown) from any location inthe nitrogen loop 404 (for example, from the compressor 409, from a roomtemperature portion or from another warm portion of the nitrogen loop404) to provide warm gas to a location in the load, such as the platen466 and/or electrostatic chuck 449, in order to warm such locationquickly for servicing. The system control unit 439 may use an electronicsignal to switch flow (for example by providing electronic signals toone or more valves) through a bypass (not shown) anywhere in thenitrogen loop 404 that causes the mixing of hot gas from a warmersection of the nitrogen loop 404 (for example, a room temperatureportion of the nitrogen loop 404) with a downstream, colder section ofthe nitrogen loop 404. In the case of flow bypasses, the system controlunit 439 may use an electronic signal to control a valve (not shown) tohave on/off, proportional, or throttling operation.

In the embodiment of FIG. 4, part or all of the control techniquesimplemented by system control unit 439 may be to perform a calculationof the bypass mixing or on/off time needed to generate the desireddelivery temperature to the load, rather than, or in addition to,performing a continuous regulation of the desired temperature based oncontinuous feedback of a reading of that temperature. Further, thesystem control unit 439 could perform a calculation of how much mixingor on/off time is needed, based on pressure and valve position ratherthan, or in addition to, performing other types of control.

In the embodiment of FIG. 4, in order to control operation of thenitrogen loop 404 and/or to control operation of the mixed gasrefrigeration system 441 in order to control the delivery temperaturesto the load (such as pre-cooling equipment 446/447/448, cold padcryogenic interface module 465, platen 466 and/or electrostatic chuck449), several further different possible techniques may be used, eitheralone or in combination. The system control unit 439 may control therefrigerant flow rate of either or both of the mixed gas refrigerationsystem 441 or the nitrogen loop 404 by providing electronic signals toone or more valves, which may be proportional or on/off valves. Forexample, such valves may be located at the supply outputs 444, 462 ofeither or both of the first and second channels 443, 450 of the mixedgas refrigeration system 441 or at the nitrogen supply lines 451 or 459.The system control unit 439 may change the set point temperature of themixed gas refrigeration system 441. The system control unit 439 maycontrol one or more heaters to heat one or more of the mixed gasrefrigerant or the nitrogen loop. The system control unit 439 mayregulate the speed of the compressor of the mixed gas refrigerationsystem 441. The system control unit 439 may control flow through abypass line (for example using one or more valves) from a warmer sectionof the mixed gas refrigeration system 441 (such as a warmer heatexchanger in a cascade system, or such as a room temperature portion ofthe mixed gas refrigeration system 441) to a colder portion of thesystem 400. The system control unit 439 may use an electronic signal toswitch flow (for example by providing electronic signals to one or morevalves) through a bypass (not shown) from a location in the mixed gasrefrigeration system 441, such as a defrost loop (not shown) of thesystem 441, to provide warm gas to a location in the load, such aspre-cool equipment 446/447/448, in order to warm such location quicklyfor servicing.

In another embodiment similar to that of FIG. 4, both the first channel443 of the mixed gas refrigeration system 441 and the nitrogen supplyand return lines 459, 460 may be used to improve cool-down time of thecold pad cryogenic interface module 465, platen 466 and/or electrostaticchuck 449. This may be done, for example, by having separate bypasslines (not shown) from the mixed gas refrigerant supply and return lines444 and 445 of the first channel 443 to the cold pad cryogenic interfacemodule 465.

The embodiment of FIG. 4 may include devices for detecting bothunder-refrigerated and over-refrigerated conditions, in a similarfashion to those described above for FIG. 1. Instead of a recirculatingnitrogen stream 404, the system may use a stream of argon, xenon,krypton, helium, another pure refrigerant or a mixed refrigerant.Similar types of compressors may be used as discussed above for FIG. 1.Heat transfer from the mixed gas refrigerant lines 462/463 to the heatexchangers 455, 456 may be performed using similar techniques forthermal conduction as those described above for FIG. 1. Similar methodsof flow control may be used as discussed above for FIG. 1. Similarmethods of pressure control may be used as discussed above for thenitrogen compressor 109 of FIG. 1. Similar safety controls may be usedas discussed above for FIG. 1, although some may not be necessary wherevacuum insulation of the insulated enclosure 410 is not used. Similartechniques for control of refrigerant purity may be used as discussedabove for FIG. 1. Alternative refrigeration such as reverse Brayton maybe used to provide cooled refrigerant to both channels of a systemaccording to an embodiment of the invention. In addition, the number ofheat exchangers required may be varied depending on cooling requirementsand heat exchanger design.

FIG. 5 is a schematic diagram of a high throughput cooling system 500 inaccordance with an embodiment of the invention, which is similar to theembodiment of FIG. 4 except that the insulated enclosure 510 isintegrated into mixed gas refrigeration system 541. Heat exchangers 552,553, 555 and 556, capillary tube 558, heater 554, adsorber 557, valves515/516/517 are all located within enclosure 510 in the mixed gasrefrigeration system 541. The nitrogen supply and return lines 551 and561 are fed into the enclosure 510 within the mixed gas refrigerationsystem 541; and the nitrogen lines 559/560 to and from the load are fedfrom the mixed gas refrigeration system 541 to the load. Mixed gas issupplied at 562 to cool the nitrogen loop from mixed gas supply lineswithin the mixed gas refrigeration system 541, and mixed gas returns at563 from having cooled the nitrogen loop. A first channel 543 operatessimilarly to that of FIG. 4, using mixed gas lines 544 and 545 to supplyand return mixed gas refrigerant to and from the customer pre-coolingequipment 546 and/or 547/548. No second channel exiting the mixed gasrefrigeration system 541 (like second channel 450 of FIG. 4) is neededin the mixed gas refrigeration system 541 because the mixed gas lines562 and 563 are directed to the nitrogen loop within the mixed gasrefrigeration system 541. The electrical control box 542, nitrogencompressor 509 and inverter 564 may be located outside of the mixed gasrefrigeration system 541. Customer equipment 567 may include a pre-coolcryogenic interface module 546, a cold pad cryogenic interface module565, one or more pre-cool chambers 547 and 548, an electrostatic chuck549 and a platen 566. Operation may otherwise be similar to that of theembodiment of FIG. 4.

In accordance with an embodiment of the invention, the mixed gasrefrigeration system may, for example, be an auto-refrigerating cascadesystem and may include multiple heat exchangers 491 and one or morephase separators 492 (see FIG. 4) in a mixed gas refrigeration process.Further, the mixed gas refrigeration system may include a branchedsupply line, delivering mixed refrigerant supply to each of the mixedrefrigerant supply lines 444 and 462 (see FIG. 4), and a branched returnline, receiving returning mixed refrigerant from each of the mixedrefrigerant return lines 445 and 463 (see FIG. 4). Further, in theembodiments of FIGS. 4 and 5, other types of refrigeration systems maybe used in place of a mixed gas refrigeration system. For example, areverse Brayton cycle or other refrigeration system may be used; and mayinclude branched supply and return lines to function in a similarfashion to the supply lines 444, 462 and return lines 445, 463 of FIG.4. Further, the two channels 443 and 450 of the mixed gas refrigerationsystem 441 may instead be implemented by two separate mixed gasrefrigeration systems, or two separate other types of refrigerationsystems.

In accordance with an embodiment of the invention, where heat exchangersare discussed herein, different numbers of such heat exchangers may beused depending on the system efficiency required.

A cooling system in accordance with an embodiment of the invention maybe operated in various modes. For example, the modes of operation mayinclude steady state operation; standby (or bypass) operation; startup(initial cool down from room temperature); and shutdown (the time towarm from operating temperature to room temperature for maintenance orother reasons). Such modes of operation may be controlled by systemcontrol units 139 or 439, for example.

In accordance with an embodiment of the invention, a system may be usedto cool a load 493 (see FIG. 4) inside an insulated enclosure (such asinsulated enclosure 410) rather than transferring refrigerant outsidethe insulated enclosure using transfer lines. For example, such anembodiment may be useful where biological samples are being cooled orfrozen, although it may be used with other loads as well. In addition,an embodiment according to the invention may comprise moving a substrateor other object or fluid to be cooled from a pre-cool chamber or otherheat transfer surface to of the load to another portion of the load,such as a process chamber.

As used herein, the term “cryogenic” refers to the temperature rangebetween 233 K and 23 K (−40 C and −250 C).

The teachings of all patents, published applications and referencescited herein are incorporated by reference in their entirety.

While this invention has been particularly shown and described withreferences to example embodiments thereof, it will be understood bythose skilled in the art that various changes in form and details may bemade therein without departing from the scope of the inventionencompassed by the appended claims.

What is claimed is:
 1. A system for cooling a load, the systemcomprising: a closed loop primary refrigeration system comprising aprimary compressor taking in a primary refrigerant at a low pressure anddischarging the primary refrigerant at a high pressure; an insulatedenclosure comprising an inlet receiving the primary refrigerant at thehigh pressure from the primary compressor and an outlet returning theprimary refrigerant at the low pressure to the primary compressor; atleast one heat exchanger within the insulated enclosure receiving theprimary refrigerant at the high pressure and cooling the primaryrefrigerant using a secondary refrigerant from a secondary refrigerationsystem, the secondary refrigerant being in heat exchange relationshipwith the primary refrigerant in the at least one heat exchanger; anexpansion unit within the insulated enclosure receiving the primaryrefrigerant at the high pressure from the at least one heat exchangerand discharging the primary refrigerant at the low pressure; a supplyline delivering the primary refrigerant at the low pressure to the loadand a return line returning the primary refrigerant from the load to theprimary refrigeration system; the secondary refrigeration system,wherein the secondary refrigeration system comprises at least onesecondary cryogenic refrigerator, and wherein the secondaryrefrigeration system comprises a first channel delivering cooling to atleast one heat transfer surface of the load and a second channeldelivering the secondary refrigerant to the at least one heat exchanger;and a system control unit controlling operation of at least one of theprimary refrigeration system and the secondary refrigeration system toprovide a variable refrigeration capacity to the load based on at leastone of: a pressure of the primary refrigerant delivered to the load, andat least one temperature of the load; the system control unit furthercomprising a control unit configured to control operation of thesecondary refrigeration system to avoid either undercooling of the loador overcooling of the load, based on (i) a measured pressure or ameasured temperature of the primary refrigerant returned from the loador (ii) a measured pressure or a measured temperature of the primaryrefrigerant entering the load.
 2. The system according to claim 1,wherein the at least one temperature of the load comprises a temperatureof from about −80 C to about −250 C.
 3. The system according to claim 1,wherein the at least one heat transfer surface transfers heat to cool atleast a portion of the load to a temperature in the range of from about−40 C to about −100 C.
 4. The system according to claim 1, wherein theat least one heat transfer surface comprises at least a portion of achamber to receive a semiconductor substrate to be processed by a systemof the load.
 5. The system according to claim 1, wherein the secondaryrefrigeration system comprises a mixed gas refrigeration system.
 6. Thesystem according to claim 5, wherein the mixed gas refrigeration systemcomprises more than one heat exchanger and at least one phase separator.7. The system according to claim 1, wherein the secondary refrigerationsystem comprises a reverse Brayton refrigeration system.
 8. The systemaccording to claim 1, wherein the load comprises at least one of apre-cool cryogenic interface module, a pre-cool chamber, a cold padcryogenic interface module, a platen, an electrostatic chuck and twoseparate loads.
 9. The system according to claim 1, further comprisingan electrical interface control unit in electronic communication withthe load.
 10. The system according to claim 9, wherein the electricalinterface control unit receives an electronic signal indicating at leastone temperature of the load.
 11. The system according to claim 9,wherein the electrical interface control unit receives an electronicsignal indicating at least one set-point temperature of the load. 12.The system according to claim 9, wherein the electrical interfacecontrol unit outputs an electrical signal to control operation of thesecondary refrigeration system to control at least one temperature ofthe load.
 13. The system according to claim 12, wherein the at least onetemperature of the load controlled by the electrical interface controlunit comprises a temperature of at least one heat transfer surface ofthe load.
 14. The system according to claim 1, wherein the systemcontrol unit comprises a control unit to control the providing of thevariable refrigeration capacity to the load based on at least thepressure of the primary refrigerant delivered to the load.
 15. Thesystem according to claim 1, wherein the system control unit comprises acontrol unit to control a discharge rate of the primary compressor. 16.The system according to claim 1, wherein the system control unitcomprises a control unit to control at least one of a high pressure, alow pressure and a pressure differential of the primary compressor. 17.The system according to claim 1, wherein the system control unitcomprises a control unit to control a heat source to supply heat to bedelivered to the primary refrigerant.
 18. The system according to claim1, wherein the expansion unit comprises an adjustable throttle, andwherein the system control unit comprises a control unit to controloperation of the adjustable throttle.
 19. The system according to claim1, wherein the system control unit comprises a control unit to controlflow of the primary refrigerant to bypass at least a portion of the atleast one heat exchanger.
 20. The system according to claim 1, whereinthe system control unit comprises a control unit to control flow of theprimary refrigerant to bypass at least a portion of the primaryrefrigeration system.
 21. The system according to claim 1, wherein thesystem control unit comprises a control unit to control a rate of flowof the primary refrigerant.
 22. The system according to claim 1, whereinthe system control unit comprises a control unit to control a rate offlow of the secondary refrigerant.
 23. The system according to claim 1,wherein the system control unit comprises a control unit to control aset point temperature of the secondary refrigeration system.
 24. Thesystem according to claim 1, wherein the system control unit comprises acontrol unit to control a heat source to supply heat to be delivered tothe secondary refrigerant.
 25. The system according to claim 1, whereinthe system control unit comprises a control unit to control flow of thesecondary refrigerant to bypass at least a portion of the secondaryrefrigeration system.
 26. The system according to claim 1, wherein thesystem control unit comprises a control unit to control flow of at leasta portion of the primary refrigerant to warm at least a portion of theload.
 27. The system according to claim 1, wherein the system controlunit comprises a control unit to control flow of at least a portion ofthe secondary refrigerant to warm at least a portion of the load.
 28. Asystem according to claim 1, wherein the insulated enclosure isintegrated into at least a portion of the secondary refrigerationsystem.
 29. The system according to claim 1, wherein the at least oneheat exchanger comprises a condenser.
 30. The system according to claim1, wherein the system control unit comprises a control unit to adjustthe speed of the at least one secondary cryogenic refrigerator.
 31. Thesystem according to claim 1, wherein the system control unit comprises acontrol unit to turn off at least one of the at least one secondarycryogenic refrigerators.
 32. The system according to claim 1, whereinthe system control unit controls operation of at least one of theprimary refrigeration system and the secondary refrigeration system tovary a proportion of the primary refrigerant that is flowed to the loadin a liquid phase versus a gaseous phase.
 33. The system according toclaim 1, wherein the system control unit controls operation of at leastone of the primary refrigeration system and the secondary refrigerationsystem to maintain a substantially constant temperature of the at leastone temperature of the load.
 34. The system according to claim 1,wherein the system control unit comprises a control unit to route atleast a portion of the primary refrigerant to a warmer surface in thesystem to reduce refrigeration applied to the load.
 35. The systemaccording to claim 1, wherein the system control unit comprises acontrol unit to permit at least one of variable speed operation of theprimary compressor, and pulsed operation of the primary compressor. 36.The system according to claim 1, wherein the control unit configured tocontrol operation of the secondary refrigeration system is configured tocontrol operation of the secondary refrigeration system to avoidundercooling of the load by: determining a calculated boiling point ofthe primary refrigerant returned from the load based on a measuredpressure of the primary refrigerant returned from the load; comparing ameasured temperature of the primary refrigerant returned from the loadwith the calculated boiling point; and if the measured temperature ismore than a predetermined temperature difference above the calculatedboiling point, controlling the secondary refrigeration system toincrease available refrigeration to the load.
 37. The system accordingto claim 1, wherein the control unit configured to control operation ofthe secondary refrigeration system is configured to control operation ofthe secondary refrigeration system to avoid undercooling of the load by:monitoring a temperature of the primary refrigerant returning from theload at a first temperature sensor downstream of the load; controlling asmall heater, downstream of the first temperature sensor, to turn on ifthe temperature at the first temperature sensor has reached apredetermined assumed saturation temperature point; monitoring atemperature of the primary refrigerant at a second temperature sensor,downstream of the small heater; and if the turning on of the smallheater raises the temperature of the primary refrigerant, controllingthe secondary refrigeration system to increase available refrigerationto the load.
 38. The system according to claim 1, wherein the controlunit configured to control operation of the secondary refrigerationsystem is configured to control operation of the secondary refrigerationsystem to avoid overcooling of the load by: monitoring a temperature ofthe primary refrigerant returning from the load at a first temperaturesensor downstream of the load; controlling a small heater, downstream ofthe first temperature sensor, to turn on if the temperature at the firsttemperature sensor has reached a predetermined assumed saturationtemperature point; monitoring a temperature of the primary refrigerantat a second temperature sensor, downstream of the small heater; and ifthe turning on of the small heater raises the temperature of the primaryrefrigerant, determining the magnitude of the heat provided by the smallheater and, based on the magnitude, determining whether to control thesecondary refrigeration system to decrease available refrigeration tothe load.
 39. The system according to claim 1, wherein the systemcontrol unit comprises a control unit to adjust a variable heater on theat least one secondary cryogenic refrigerator.
 40. The system accordingto claim 1, wherein the system control unit comprises a control unit tocontrol a setpoint temperature of the at least one secondary cryogenicrefrigerator.
 41. The system according to claim 1, wherein the primaryrefrigerant comprises a nitrogen stream.
 42. The system according toclaim 1, wherein the primary refrigerant comprises at least one ofargon, xenon, krypton, helium and a mixed gas refrigerant.
 43. Thesystem according to claim 1, wherein the primary refrigerant comprisesat least one refrigerant component having a boiling temperature that ishigher than a boiling temperature of a refrigerant used in the secondaryrefrigeration system.
 44. The system according to claim 43, wherein theprimary refrigerant comprises at least one of argon, nitrogen, xenon andkrypton, and wherein the secondary refrigerant comprises at least one ofhelium and neon.
 45. The system according to claim 1, wherein theprimary refrigerant comprises a refrigerant having a boiling temperaturethat is lower than a boiling temperature of at least one refrigerantused in the secondary refrigeration system.
 46. The system according toclaim 45, wherein the primary refrigerant comprises at least one ofargon, nitrogen, xenon, krypton and helium, and wherein the secondaryrefrigerant comprises a mixed gas refrigerant.
 47. The system accordingto claim 1, further comprising a recuperative heat exchanger within theinsulated enclosure and exchanging heat between the primary refrigerantat the high pressure flowing from the inlet of the insulated enclosureand the primary refrigerant returned from the load, the recuperativeheat exchanger discharging the primary refrigerant at the high pressureto a condenser.
 48. The system according to claim 47, further comprisinga bypass valve permitting bypassing of the recuperative heat exchangersuch that the primary refrigerant at the high pressure flowing from theinlet of the insulated enclosure does not exchange heat with the primaryrefrigerant returned from the load.
 49. The system according to claim47, wherein the control unit configured to control operation of thesecondary refrigeration system is configured to control operation of thesecondary refrigeration system to avoid undercooling of the load by:monitoring a temperature in at least one of an intermediate point in therecuperative heat exchanger and an end point of the recuperative heatexchanger; and if the monitored temperature falls below a predeterminedtemperature, controlling the secondary refrigeration system to decreaseavailable refrigeration to the load.
 50. The system according to claim1, wherein the load comprises an electrostatic chuck.
 51. The systemaccording to claim 50, wherein the electrostatic chuck is a portion ofan ion implantation system to manufacture a semiconductor device. 52.The system according to claim 51, further comprising a pre-coolingchamber to receive the semiconductor device prior to its handling by theelectrostatic chuck.
 53. The system according to claim 1, wherein theload comprises at least one of: at least a portion of a system forcooling a semiconductor wafer, at least a portion of an ion implantationsystem, and at least a portion of a physical vapor deposition system.54. The system according to claim 1, wherein the at least one secondarycryogenic refrigerator comprises a Gifford-McMahon cycle refrigerator.55. A system according to claim 54, wherein the Gifford-McMahon cyclerefrigerator comprises a helium refrigerator.
 56. The system accordingto claim 1, wherein the at least one secondary cryogenic refrigeratorcomprises a pulse tube refrigerator.
 57. The system according to claim1, wherein the at least one secondary cryogenic refrigerator comprisesat least one of a reverse Brayton cycle refrigerator, a Stirling cyclerefrigerator and a Joule-Thomson cycle refrigerator.
 58. A systemaccording to claim 1, wherein the at least one secondary cryogenicrefrigerator comprises a refrigerator using a single refrigerant. 59.The system according to claim 1, wherein the at least one secondarycryogenic refrigerator comprises a refrigerator using a mixed gasrefrigerant.
 60. The system according to claim 1, wherein the primarycompressor of the primary refrigeration system comprises a variablespeed compressor.
 61. A system according to claim 1, further comprisinga cryopumping surface to create a vacuum within the insulated enclosure.62. A system according to claim 61, wherein the cryopumping surfacecomprises a second stage of cooling of the at least one secondarycryogenic refrigerator.
 63. The system according to claim 1, furthercomprising a bypass valve permitting the primary refrigerant to bypassthe supply line that delivers the primary refrigerant to the load andthe return line that returns the primary refrigerant from the load. 64.The system according to claim 1, wherein the expansion unit comprises atleast one of a capillary tube, a valve with a variable flow area, aspring biased valve, a piston expander and a turbine expander.
 65. Thesystem according to claim 1, further comprising: a pressure regulatorregulating flow of the primary refrigerant between a source of theprimary refrigerant and the primary refrigerant at the low pressuretaken in by the primary compressor; and a pressure control unit tocontrol the pressure regulator to regulate the flow of the primaryrefrigerant into the system.
 66. The system according to claim 1,further comprising an isolation valve connected to a pressure gauge onthe insulated enclosure, the isolation valve preventing flow of theprimary refrigerant into the inlet of the insulated enclosure if thepressure gauge on the insulated enclosure detects a pressure above apredetermined maximum safe pressure.
 67. The system according to claim1, further comprising: a thermal sensor connected to monitor thetemperature of the primary refrigerant returning from the insulatedenclosure to the primary compressor; and a safety control unit connectedto discontinue operation of the secondary refrigeration system if thetemperature of the primary refrigerant returning from the insulatedenclosure is less than a predetermined touch hazard minimum temperature.68. The system according to claim 1, wherein at least a portion of eachof the supply line and the return line extend within a vacuum insulatedtransfer line.
 69. The system according to claim 1, wherein the at leastone heat exchanger converts at least a substantial portion of theprimary refrigerant to a liquid phase.
 70. The system according to claim1, wherein the at least one heat exchanger substantially does notconvert the primary refrigerant to a liquid phase.
 71. The systemaccording to claim 70, wherein the expansion unit converts at least asubstantial portion of the primary refrigerant to a liquid phase. 72.The system according to claim 1, wherein the supply line delivers therefrigerant at the low pressure to the load through a transfer line outof the insulated enclosure, and wherein the return line returns therefrigerant from the load to the insulated enclosure through thetransfer line.
 73. The system according to claim 1, wherein the load iswithin the insulated enclosure.
 74. The system according to claim 1,wherein the load comprises at least one of: a semiconductor substrate, afluid stream for cryogenic separation, a gas to be liquefied, abiological sample, a chemical process, material property analysisequipment, a water vapor trap, an article in a manufacturing process, animaging device, a subatomic particle detector, a photonic detector,chemical analysis equipment, a superconducting cable, and asuperconducting device.
 75. A method for cooling a load, the methodcomprising: compressing a primary refrigerant in a primary compressor ofa closed loop primary refrigeration system, the primary compressortaking in the primary refrigerant at a low pressure and discharging theprimary refrigerant at a high pressure; transferring the primaryrefrigerant at the high pressure from the primary compressor to an inletof an insulated enclosure, and returning the primary refrigerant at thelow pressure from the insulated enclosure to the primary compressor;transferring the primary refrigerant at the high pressure to at leastone heat exchanger within the insulated enclosure, and cooling theprimary refrigerant in the at least one heat exchanger using heatexchange with a secondary refrigerant from a secondary refrigerationsystem, the secondary refrigeration system comprising at least onesecondary cryogenic refrigerator; expanding the primary refrigerantusing an expansion unit within the insulated enclosure, the expansionunit receiving the primary refrigerant at the high pressure from the atleast one heat exchanger and discharging the primary refrigerant at thelow pressure; delivering the primary refrigerant at the low pressure tothe load and returning the primary refrigerant from the load to theprimary refrigeration system; controlling operation of at least one ofthe primary refrigeration system and the secondary refrigeration systemto provide a variable refrigeration capacity to the load based on atleast one of: a pressure of the primary refrigerant delivered to theload, and at least one temperature of the load; controlling operation ofthe secondary refrigeration system to avoid either undercooling of theload or overcooling of the load, based on (i) a measured pressure or ameasured temperature of the primary refrigerant returned from the loador (ii) a measured pressure or a measured temperature of the primaryrefrigerant entering the load; and delivering cooling from the secondaryrefrigeration system to at least one heat transfer surface of the loadthrough a first channel of the secondary refrigeration system, anddelivering the secondary refrigerant to the at least one heat exchangerthrough a second channel of the secondary refrigeration system.
 76. Themethod according to claim 75, further comprising controlling theproviding of the variable refrigeration capacity to the load based on atleast the pressure of the primary refrigerant delivered to the load. 77.The method according to claim 75, further comprising controlling atleast one of a high pressure, a low pressure and a pressure differentialof the primary compressor.
 78. The method according to claim 75, furthercomprising controlling a heat source to supply heat to be delivered tothe primary refrigerant.
 79. The method according to claim 75, whereinthe expansion unit comprises an adjustable throttle, the method furthercomprising controlling operation of the adjustable throttle.
 80. Themethod according to claim 75, further comprising controlling flow of theprimary refrigerant to bypass at least a portion of the at least oneheat exchanger.
 81. The method according to claim 75, further comprisingcontrolling flow of the primary refrigerant to bypass at least a portionof the primary refrigeration system.
 82. The method according to claim75, further comprising controlling a rate of flow of the primaryrefrigerant.
 83. The method according to claim 75, further comprisingcontrolling a rate of flow of the secondary refrigerant.
 84. The methodaccording to claim 75, further comprising controlling a set pointtemperature of the secondary refrigeration system.
 85. The methodaccording to claim 75, further comprising controlling a heat source tosupply heat to be delivered to the secondary refrigerant.
 86. The methodaccording to claim 75, further comprising controlling flow of thesecondary refrigerant to bypass at least a portion of the secondaryrefrigeration system.
 87. The method according to claim 75, furthercomprising controlling flow of at least a portion of the primaryrefrigerant to warm at least a portion of the load.
 88. The methodaccording to claim 75, further comprising controlling flow of at least aportion of the secondary refrigerant to warm at least a portion of theload.
 89. The method according to claim 75, comprising delivering therefrigerant at the low pressure to the load through a transfer line outof the insulated enclosure, and returning the refrigerant from the loadto the insulated enclosure through the transfer line.
 90. The methodaccording to claim 75, wherein the load is within the insulatedenclosure.
 91. The method according to claim 75, wherein the loadcomprises at least one of: a semiconductor substrate, a fluid stream forcryogenic separation, a gas to be liquefied, a biological sample, achemical process, material property analysis equipment, a water vaportrap, an article in a manufacturing process, an imaging device, asubatomic particle detector, a photonic detector, chemical analysisequipment, a superconducting cable, and a superconducting device. 92.The method according to claim 75, further comprising moving an object orfluid to be cooled from a heat transfer surface of the load to anotherportion of the load.
 93. The system according to claim 1, wherein thefirst channel of the secondary refrigeration system comprises a separaterefrigeration channel from the second channel of the secondaryrefrigeration system.
 94. The method according to claim 75, wherein thefirst channel of the secondary refrigeration system comprises a separaterefrigeration channel from the second channel of the secondaryrefrigeration system.